Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), can be asymptomatic or lead to a broad spectrum of disease manifestations from mild to severe disease and death. There is evidence showing that acute COVID-19 causes a profound activation of innate and adaptive immune cells, and distinct immunological signatures are shown to correlate with disease outcomes (Mathew et al., 2020). Viral control and mild disease associate with the rapid generation of T-cells and antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2 (Lucas et al., 2021; Tan et al., 2021), while severe disease is characterised by immune cell hyperactivation and a ‘cytokine storm’ (Chen et al., 2020; Kuri-Cervantes et al., 2020; Ruan et al., 2020). Commonly observed biomarkers of severe COVID-19 include lymphopenia, increased neutrophil to T-cell ratio, and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines/mediators such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, IL-17, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10), CRP, IL-1Rα, and IL-1β. In a smaller proportion of individuals, severe COVID-19 may be driven by pre-existing anti-interferon gamma (anti-IFN-γ) autoantibodies (Bastard et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Lucas et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2020). Other distinctive features of severe disease include a dysregulation in the myeloid compartment consisting of increased circulating immature/dysfunctional neutrophils and immature Ki67⁺ COX-2^low monocytes (Mann et al., 2020; Schulte-Schrepping et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020; Mardi et al., 2021), while T-cell activation and proliferation appears to be heterogenous in severe patients (Mathew et al., 2020; Kuri-Cervantes et al., 2020).

The kinetics of immune recovery following the changes occurring during acute COVID-19 are complex and not fully understood. Longitudinal studies show that immune abnormalities and inflammation may persist after severe COVID-19, with highly activated myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and persistently activated T-cells detected 8–12 months after COVID-19 (Bergamaschi et al., 2021; Phetsouphanh et al., 2022; Taeschler et al., 2022).

The potential impact of prolonged immune activation post recovery and whether it may underlie the symptoms of post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection or long COVID - a syndrome characterised by long-lasting symptoms affecting multiple organs - remains unclear. Long COVID is observed in 8–21% of individuals following mild to severe COVID-19, although a higher prevalence of symptoms is reported in patients requiring ICU admission and/or mechanical ventilation (Alwan, 2021; Nalbandian et al., 2021; Ballering et al., 2022). Several studies have reported a correlation between long COVID symptoms and a variety of immune profiles including a more rapid decline of SARS-CoV-2 memory CD8⁺ T-cells and lower levels of cytotoxic SARS-CoV-2 N-specific CD8⁺ T-cells (Peluso et al., 2021), increased levels of cytotoxic CD8⁺ T-cells, and elevated plasma levels of type I cytokines, IL-1β and IL-6 (Shuwa et al., 2021; Schultheiß et al., 2022). Another longitudinal study conducted in 69 patients found long COVID to associate with an altered immune blood cell transcriptome which included significant changes in genes involved in cell cycle, but not with the phenotypic profiles of these cells (Ryan et al., 2022). A large UK cohort study (PHOSP-COVID) of hospitalised COVID-19 patients identified female sex, obesity, and invasive mechanical ventilation as factors associated with a lower likelihood of full recovery, with an overall recovery rate of 28.9% at both 5 and 12 months across all disease severities (Evans et al., 2022). Similarly, other cohort studies have identified associations between poor recovery from COVID-19 and demographic factors such as sex and age, but also highlight a possible role of immune dysregulation that occurs in older age, obesity and asthma, which warrants further investigation (Sneller et al., 2022; Halpin et al., 2021; Thompson et al., 2022). Other hypotheses proposed to explain the mechanisms underlying long COVID include unresolved lung tissue damage, the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the reactivation of latent viruses such as human cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus and autoimmunity (Proal and VanElzakker, 2021; Gatto et al., 2022; Plüß et al., 2021; Zollner et al., 2022). Due to the limited effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in protecting from re-infection, SARS-CoV-2 continues to circulate within our populations and millions of people worldwide are at risk of experiencing long-term health complications from COVID-19. Studies suggest that COVID-19 vaccination may reduce the risk of developing long COVID (Al-Aly et al., 2022; Notarte et al., 2022). Nevertheless the burden of long COVID threatens to increase and further compromise our post-pandemic economic recovery. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying long COVID and the design/repurposing of drugs to treat or prevent this syndrome is urgently needed.

In this study we investigated whether patients who had COVID-19, 3 months post hospitalisation display persistent immune activation and ongoing inflammation and if there are potential links between the observed immune profiles, COVID-19 disease severity and long COVID symptoms. We also investigated whether persistent immune activation and disease severity have an impact on the capacity of patients to generate and maintain a memory T-cell response and antibodies to SARS-CoV-2. Our immunological analysis of 187 samples from 63 hospitalised patients recovering from mild, moderate, or severe disease showed increased levels of activated CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells and increased plasma levels of T-cell-related cytokines (IL-4, IL-7, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) at 3 months in severe compared to moderate/mild patients. T-cell activation and cytokine levels decreased at 12 months and were comparable in mild, moderate, and severe patients. The SARS-CoV-2-specific memory T-cell response to spike, membrane and nucleocapsid was robust and qualitatively similar across the disease severities, however the magnitude of the CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell and antibody response was higher in patients with moderate compared to mild disease, as were the plasma levels of IFN-γ, a key cytokine for anti-viral immunity. Long COVID symptoms at 3 months were reported in 80% of patients across all disease severities but were more frequent in patients with severe disease. Poisson regression analysis showed a significant association between ongoing symptoms and the frequency of a subset of moderately activated CD4⁺ T and non-cytotoxic HLA-DR⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells in unadjusted analyses, but these associations did not meet the criteria for statistical significance after adjusting for age, sex, and severity grades. Our results demonstrate the presence of immune perturbations in peripheral blood CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell populations in severe COVID-19 patients 3 months after hospitalisation with no direct association between long COVID symptoms and immune activation/pro-inflammatory cytokines, for the markers that were measured.

Emerging data demonstrates that immune activation may persist for months after COVID-19, however there is heterogeneity in findings particularly between hospitalised versus non-hospitalised cohorts, which by nature of how patients were managed during the peak of the pandemic comprise of patients with a very different spectrum of disease. Here, we report results from a small study performed on a cohort of clinically well-characterised mild, moderate, and severe patients who were all hospitalised at the start of the pandemic and followed up closely through outpatient follow-up clinics up to 12 months post admission. We ask whether ongoing inflammation and immune perturbations, particularly within the T-cell population, associate with long COVID symptoms. Specifically, we ask the following questions: (1) Is there evidence of ongoing inflammatory events post hospitalisation with COVID-19, and are these linked with disease severity at acute infection? (2) Are the magnitude and features of the SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell memory response influenced by disease severity? (3) Do long COVID symptoms associate with persistent immune activation, inflammation, and/or SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell immunity? To answer these questions, we performed an in-depth immunological analysis of 187 samples from 63 patients at 3 and 12 months post admission, including a characterisation of activation/proliferation profiles and phenotypic features of circulating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells, γδ-T-cells, NK cells, B cells, and CD14^+/-CD16^+/- monocytes by flow cytometry, as well as an analysis of T-cells and antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2 and pro-inflammatory plasma cytokines/chemokines by Luminex at 3, 8, and 12 months. Our data shows persistent CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell activation and elevated plasma levels of IL-4, IL-7, IL-17, and TNF-α at 3 months, in severe compared to mild and/or moderate patients. The elevated levels of these cytokines are consistent with ongoing T-cell activation as CD4⁺ T-cells are key producers of IL-4 and IL-17 and both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells secrete TNF-α. IL-7 stimulates proliferation of T-cells and can be produced by a variety of cells such as epithelial cells, stromal cells, and dendritic cells. Plasma levels of IL-4, IL-7, and IL-15 were similar at acute infection and 3 months but declined at later time points, suggesting a slow recovery of T-cell-related perturbations within 12 months. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell activation was evident when we analysed the flow cytometry data both by manual gating and by FlowSOM/UMAP - where the former method investigates cells expressing known combinations of markers, while the latter identifies clusters of cells in an unsupervised manner based on the combined expression of all markers analysed. Manual gating highlighted increased levels of CD4⁺ T-cells expressing the lung tissue-homing marker CXCR3 in severe patients, suggesting the presence of factors that may be recruiting and priming CD4⁺ T-cells in this site. This finding may suggest unresolved damage/inflammation in the lung, however clinical abnormalities in lung function were evident only in a minority of these patients during the follow-up clinic (Al-Aly et al., 2022). Both manual and FlowSOM/UMAP analysis show increased granzyme B expression in CD8⁺ T-cells from severe patients, suggesting an overall higher cytotoxic ability of these cells. Granzyme B expression is upregulated in cells after T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation and confers higher cytotoxic abilities to the activated T-cell, hence higher expression could reflect a higher activation state in these cells. Interestingly, expression of CXCR3 is reduced (and undetectable) in both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells at 12 compared to 3 months post admission (Figure 2—figure supplement 1). Expression of granzyme B was also decreased in CD8⁺ T-cells at 12 compared to 3 months. Ongoing T-cell activation did not appear to impair the ability of severe patients to mount and maintain memory T-cell or antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins, which were present and robust across all patients. The quality of the T-cell response was also similar across the patient groups, and we could detect monofunctional and polyfunctional SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cells, with the former dominating the response. However, moderate compared to mild patients displayed elevated spike RBD antibody titers and higher magnitudes of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells producing IFN-γ and/or TNF-α/CD107a by ICS, after stimulation with spike-1 peptides. The magnitude of the T-cell response is closely linked with viremia (Miller et al., 2008) and higher viral loads during the acute illness may underlie the higher magnitude of IFN-γ/TNF-α producing CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells. However, viremia data at acute illness was not available for our patient cohort. The frequency of T-cells producing IFN-γ alone did not differ in the ICS analysis, in line with the ELISpot data. Cytokine production following PMA/ionomycin were comparable between patients, suggesting similar T-cell functionality to polyclonal stimulation that bypasses the TCR.

T-cells can be activated through TCR triggering or ‘bystander activated’ by cytokines such as IL-7 and IL-15. Bystander T-cell activation was observed to occur during viral infection and is likely driven by IL-15 (Sandalova et al., 2010; Rivino et al., 2015). Here, we demonstrate that co-culture of plasma from severe patients induced upregulation of the IL-15 receptor (IL-15R)-α-chain on T-cells from healthy donors, suggesting that the low-level proliferation of T-cells we see in severe patients may be bystander in nature and driven by plasma cytokines persistently present at 3 months in severe patients. Highly differentiated T-cells are more responsive to IL-15 due to their higher expression of the IL-15R (Geginat et al., 2003; Rivino et al., 2004). The higher responsiveness of CMV-specific T-cells, which are highly differentiated cells, has been proposed as a mechanism to explain why these cells are commonly activated/proliferating during acute viral infections such as dengue, HBV, and COVID-19 (Sandalova et al., 2010; Rivino et al., 2015; Gregorova et al., 2020). It may be possible that the low-level proliferation of CMV-pp65-specific CD4⁺ T-cells observed in this study is driven by cytokines which are still elevated at 3 months. Our data does not support the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 antigens at 3 months for two reasons. Firstly, we would expect that the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 antigens in vivo would result in the activation of SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cells, however we did not observe expression of markers of activation nor proliferation in spike-1-specific T-cells in our ICS analysis. Secondly, we did not detect any SARS-CoV-2 RNA by RT-PCR - however we cannot exclude that SARS-CoV-2 antigens may still be present but are sequestered in specific sites to which T-cells do not have access.

Prolonged T-cell activation after acute infection has been observed in other severe respiratory infections and may not be specific for COVID-19. In H7N9 influenza infection persistent T-cell activation was associated with fatal disease while T-cell activation early during infection associated with positive clinical outcomes, however the frequencies of bystander-activated T-cells in fatal patients was high (approx. 20% of CD8⁺ T-cells) (Wang et al., 2018). Further studies are needed to understand the impact of prolonged T-cell activation following acute viral infections.

In this study the levels of CRP, albumin, and IL-6 at 3 months were similar across patients, suggesting an overall resolution of the inflammatory processes occurring during the acute infection. In contrast, a recent study showed increased levels of several pro-inflammatory markers at 12 months, including CRP and IL-6, which correlated with the presence of persistently activated T-cells. Interestingly the authors showed that COVID-19 mRNA vaccination and boosting of SARS-CoV-2 immunity did not alter these profiles, suggesting inflammation may be independent of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 antigens in these patients (Taeschler et al., 2022). We cannot exclude that the presence of activated T-cells may be linked to the comorbidities experienced by the patients in this cohort, which included obesity, type-1 and -2 diabetes, and asthma. These comorbidities were present across all groups but increased progressively with disease severity (Table 1). However, at 12 months post admission T-cell activation was similar and largely undetectable in patients with mild, moderate, and severe disease, suggesting that the differences we observe between patients at 3 months may not be driven by differences in T-cell activation already present in these patients prior to COVID-19.

Due to the limited number of cells available we were unable to analyse T-cell phenotypes associated with regulatory and anti-inflammatory activity. This represents a limitation of this study. The relatively small patient cohort as well as the lack of ethnic diversity of patients who were predominately white Caucasians represents another limitation of this study.

Long COVID symptoms were reported in 80% of patients across all disease severities but were more frequent in patients with severe disease, in line with published findings (Cabrera Martimbianco et al., 2021). The factors driving long COVID remain largely unclear, as do those underlying the long-term fatigue syndromes that have previously been observed following other viral infections (Hickie et al., 2006). Although the prevalence of long COVID is reported to be higher in hospitalised patients and those who received intensive care support, the risk factors of developing a severe acute illness (male sex, age, obesity, ethnicity, and cardiovascular disease) only partially overlap with those reported to associate with long COVID (female sex, age, obesity, anxiety, asthma), suggesting that pathogenesis at acute infection and in convalescence may be driven by distinct mechanisms (Evans et al., 2022; Sneller et al., 2022; Halpin et al., 2021; Thompson et al., 2022). In this study, Poisson regression analysis showed no association between ongoing symptoms and immune perturbations after adjusting for age, sex, and severity grades, but identified a significant association between ongoing symptoms and the frequency of a cluster of moderately activated CD4⁺ T-cells (cluster 2) and a cluster of activated, non-cytotoxic HLA-DR⁺ CD8⁺ T-cells (cluster 4) in unadjusted analyses, after FDR correction. Our study adds to emerging data suggesting that a prolonged immune activation can be observed following COVID-19 which may not directly associate with long COVID (Evans et al., 2022; Sneller et al., 2022). The clinical implications of persistent T-cell activation following COVID-19 remain unclear and warrant further investigation.

In summary, our study highlights a complex recovery of the immune system following severe COVID-19 with evidence of persistent activation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells, which may be bystander driven, and elevated levels of T-cell-related cytokines in the plasma of severe patients at 3 months. Our data suggests the lack of a direct association between long COVID and immune activation markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines measured in this study.

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in the manuscript files or supplementary files. Raw file (FCS files) for all flow cytometry data have been deposited in the FlowRepository, the link for access to the data is provided in the Material and Methods, Flow cytometry data analysis section.The code script and data for the analysis in Figure 6 are publicly available on GitHub (copy archived at Hamilton, 2022).

1. 1. Gregorova R

   (2023) FlowRepository

   ID FR-FCM-Z6HZ. Intracellular cytokine staining.

   http://flowrepository.org/id/FR-FCM-Z6HZ
2. 1. Gregorova R

   (2023) FlowRepository

   ID FR-FCM-Z6HY. IL15R experiment.

   http://flowrepository.org/id/FR-FCM-Z6HY
3. 1. Gregorova R

   (2023) FlowRepository

   ID FR-FCM-Z6GL. T NK cell phenotyping.

   http://flowrepository.org/id/FR-FCM-Z6GL
4. 1. Gregorova R

   (2023) FlowRepository

   ID FR-FCM-Z6H7. Innate cell phenotyping.

   http://flowrepository.org/id/FR-FCM-Z6H7

1. 1. Al-Aly Z
   2. Bowe B
   3. Xie Y

   (2022) Long COVID after breakthrough SARS-Cov-2 infection

   Nature Medicine 28:1461–1467.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01840-0

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
2. 1. Alwan NA

   (2021) The road to addressing long Covid

   Science 373:491–493.

   https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg7113

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
3. 1. Arnold DT
   2. Hamilton FW
   3. Milne A
   4. Morley AJ
   5. Viner J
   6. Attwood M
   7. Noel A
   8. Gunning S
   9. Hatrick J
   10. Hamilton S
   11. Elvers KT
   12. Hyams C
   13. Bibby A
   14. Moran E
   15. Adamali HI
   16. Dodd JW
   17. Maskell NA
   18. Barratt SL

   (2021) Patient outcomes after Hospitalisation with COVID-19 and implications for follow-up: results from a prospective UK cohort

   Thorax 76:399–401.

   https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216086

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
4. 1. Ballering AV
   2. van Zon SKR
   3. Olde Hartman TC
   4. Rosmalen JGM
   5. Lifelines Corona Research Initiative

   (2022) Persistence of somatic symptoms after COVID-19 in the Netherlands: an observational cohort study

   Lancet 400:452–461.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01214-4

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
5. 1. Bastard P
   2. Rosen LB
   3. Zhang Q
   4. Michailidis E
   5. Hoffmann HH
   6. Zhang Y
   7. Dorgham K
   8. Philippot Q
   9. Rosain J
   10. Béziat V
   11. Manry J
   12. Shaw E
   13. Haljasmägi L
   14. Peterson P
   15. Lorenzo L
   16. Bizien L
   17. Trouillet-Assant S
   18. Dobbs K
   19. de Jesus AA
   20. Belot A
   21. Kallaste A
   22. Catherinot E
   23. Tandjaoui-Lambiotte Y
   24. Le Pen J
   25. Kerner G
   26. Bigio B
   27. Seeleuthner Y
   28. Yang R
   29. Bolze A
   30. Spaan AN
   31. Delmonte OM
   32. Abers MS
   33. Aiuti A
   34. Casari G
   35. Lampasona V
   36. Piemonti L
   37. Ciceri F
   38. Bilguvar K
   39. Lifton RP
   40. Vasse M
   41. Smadja DM
   42. Migaud M
   43. Hadjadj J
   44. Terrier B
   45. Duffy D
   46. Quintana-Murci L
   47. van de Beek D
   48. Roussel L
   49. Vinh DC
   50. Tangye SG
   51. Haerynck F
   52. Dalmau D
   53. Martinez-Picado J
   54. Brodin P
   55. Nussenzweig MC
   56. Boisson-Dupuis S
   57. Rodríguez-Gallego C
   58. Vogt G
   59. Mogensen TH
   60. Oler AJ
   61. Gu J
   62. Burbelo PD
   63. Cohen JI
   64. Biondi A
   65. Bettini LR
   66. D’Angio M
   67. Bonfanti P
   68. Rossignol P
   69. Mayaux J
   70. Rieux-Laucat F
   71. Husebye ES
   72. Fusco F
   73. Ursini MV
   74. Imberti L
   75. Sottini A
   76. Paghera S
   77. Quiros-Roldan E
   78. Rossi C
   79. Castagnoli R
   80. Montagna D
   81. Licari A
   82. Marseglia GL
   83. Duval X
   84. Ghosn J
   85. HGID Lab
   86. NIAID-USUHS Immune Response to COVID Group
   87. COVID Clinicians
   88. COVID-STORM Clinicians
   89. Imagine COVID Group
   90. French COVID Cohort Study Group
   91. Milieu Intérieur Consortium
   92. CoV-Contact Cohort
   93. Amsterdam UMC Covid-19 Biobank
   94. COVID Human Genetic Effort
   95. Tsang JS
   96. Goldbach-Mansky R
   97. Kisand K
   98. Lionakis MS
   99. Puel A
   100. Zhang SY
   101. Holland SM
   102. Gorochov G
   103. Jouanguy E
   104. Rice CM
   105. Cobat A
   106. Notarangelo LD
   107. Abel L
   108. Su HC
   109. Casanova JL

   (2020) Autoantibodies against type I Ifns in patients with life-threatening COVID-19

   Science 370:eabd4585.

   https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd4585

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
6. 1. Bergamaschi L
   2. Mescia F
   3. Turner L
   4. Hanson AL
   5. Kotagiri P
   6. Dunmore BJ
   7. Ruffieux H
   8. De Sa A
   9. Huhn O
   10. Morgan MD

   (2021) Longitudinal analysis reveals that delayed bystander Cd8+ T cell activation and early immune pathology distinguish severe COVID-19 from mild disease

   Immunity 54:1257–1275.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2021.05.010

   • Google Scholar
7. 1. Brazier JE
   2. Harper R
   3. Jones NM
   4. O’Cathain A
   5. Thomas KJ
   6. Usherwood T
   7. Westlake L

   (1992) Validating the SF-36 health survey questionnaire: new outcome measure for primary care

   BMJ 305:160–164.

   https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.305.6846.160

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
8. 1. Cabrera Martimbianco AL
   2. Pacheco RL
   3. Bagattini ÂM
   4. Riera R

   (2021) Frequency, signs and symptoms, and criteria adopted for long COVID-19: A systematic review

   International Journal of Clinical Practice 75:e14357.

   https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14357

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
9. 1. Chen G
   2. Wu D
   3. Guo W
   4. Cao Y
   5. Huang D
   6. Wang H
   7. Wang T
   8. Zhang X
   9. Chen H
   10. Yu H
   11. Zhang X
   12. Zhang M
   13. Wu S
   14. Song J
   15. Chen T
   16. Han M
   17. Li S
   18. Luo X
   19. Zhao J
   20. Ning Q

   (2020) Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate Coronavirus disease

   The Journal of Clinical Investigation 130:2620–2629.

   https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI137244

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
10. 1. Evans RA
    2. Leavy OC
    3. Richardson M
    4. Elneima O
    5. McAuley HJC
    6. Shikotra A
    7. Singapuri A
    8. Sereno M
    9. Saunders RM
    10. Harris VC
    11. Houchen-Wolloff L
    12. Aul R
    13. Beirne P
    14. Bolton CE
    15. Brown JS
    16. Choudhury G
    17. Diar-Bakerly N
    18. Easom N
    19. Echevarria C
    20. Fuld J
    21. Hart N
    22. Hurst J
    23. Jones MG
    24. Parekh D
    25. Pfeffer P
    26. Rahman NM
    27. Rowland-Jones SL
    28. Shah AM
    29. Wootton DG
    30. Chalder T
    31. Davies MJ
    32. De Soyza A
    33. Geddes JR
    34. Greenhalf W
    35. Greening NJ
    36. Heaney LG
    37. Heller S
    38. Howard LS
    39. Jacob J
    40. Jenkins RG
    41. Lord JM
    42. Man WD-C
    43. McCann GP
    44. Neubauer S
    45. Openshaw PJM
    46. Porter JC
    47. Rowland MJ
    48. Scott JT
    49. Semple MG
    50. Singh SJ
    51. Thomas DC
    52. Toshner M
    53. Lewis KE
    54. Thwaites RS
    55. Briggs A
    56. Docherty AB
    57. Kerr S
    58. Lone NI
    59. Quint J
    60. Sheikh A
    61. Thorpe M
    62. Zheng B
    63. Chalmers JD
    64. Ho LP
    65. Horsley A
    66. Marks M
    67. Poinasamy K
    68. Raman B
    69. Harrison EM
    70. Wain LV
    71. Brightling CE
    72. Abel K
    73. Adamali H
    74. Adeloye D
    75. Adeyemi O
    76. Adrego R
    77. Aguilar Jimenez LA
    78. Ahmad S
    79. Ahmad Haider N
    80. Ahmed R
    81. Ahwireng N
    82. Ainsworth M
    83. Al-Sheklly B
    84. Alamoudi A
    85. Ali M
    86. Aljaroof M
    87. All A
    88. Allan L
    89. Allen RJ
    90. Allerton L
    91. Allsop L
    92. Almeida P
    93. Altmann D
    94. Alvarez Corral M
    95. Amoils S
    96. Anderson D
    97. Antoniades C
    98. Arbane G
    99. Arias A
    100. Armour C
    101. Armstrong L
    102. Armstrong N
    103. Arnold D
    104. Arnold H
    105. Ashish A
    106. Ashworth A
    107. Ashworth M
    108. Aslani S
    109. Assefa-Kebede H
    110. Atkin C
    111. Atkin P
    112. Aung H
    113. Austin L
    114. Avram C
    115. Ayoub A
    116. Babores M
    117. Baggott R
    118. Bagshaw J
    119. Baguley D
    120. Bailey L
    121. Baillie JK
    122. Bain S
    123. Bakali M
    124. Bakau M
    125. Baldry E
    126. Baldwin D
    127. Ballard C
    128. Banerjee A
    129. Bang B
    130. Barker RE
    131. Barman L
    132. Barratt S
    133. Barrett F
    134. Basire D
    135. Basu N
    136. Bates M
    137. Bates A
    138. Batterham R
    139. Baxendale H
    140. Bayes H
    141. Beadsworth M
    142. Beckett P
    143. Beggs M
    144. Begum M
    145. Bell D
    146. Bell R
    147. Bennett K
    148. Beranova E
    149. Bermperi A
    150. Berridge A
    151. Berry C
    152. Betts S
    153. Bevan E
    154. Bhui K
    155. Bingham M
    156. Birchall K
    157. Bishop L
    158. Bisnauthsing K
    159. Blaikely J
    160. Bloss A
    161. Bolger A
    162. Bonnington J
    163. Botkai A
    164. Bourne C
    165. Bourne M
    166. Bramham K
    167. Brear L
    168. Breen G
    169. Breeze J
    170. Bright E
    171. Brill S
    172. Brindle K
    173. Broad L
    174. Broadley A
    175. Brookes C
    176. Broome M
    177. Brown A
    178. Brown A
    179. Brown J
    180. Brown J
    181. Brown M
    182. Brown M
    183. Brown V
    184. Brugha T
    185. Brunskill N
    186. Buch M
    187. Buckley P
    188. Bularga A
    189. Bullmore E
    190. Burden L
    191. Burdett T
    192. Burn D
    193. Burns G
    194. Burns A
    195. Busby J
    196. Butcher R
    197. Butt A
    198. Byrne S
    199. Cairns P
    200. Calder PC
    201. Calvelo E
    202. Carborn H
    203. Card B
    204. Carr C
    205. Carr L
    206. Carson G
    207. Carter P
    208. Casey A
    209. Cassar M
    210. Cavanagh J
    211. Chablani M
    212. Chambers RC
    213. Chan F
    214. Channon KM
    215. Chapman K
    216. Charalambou A
    217. Chaudhuri N
    218. Checkley A
    219. Chen J
    220. Cheng Y
    221. Chetham L
    222. Childs C
    223. Chilvers ER
    224. Chinoy H
    225. Chiribiri A
    226. Chong-James K
    227. Choudhury N
    228. Chowienczyk P
    229. Christie C
    230. Chrystal M
    231. Clark D
    232. Clark C
    233. Clarke J
    234. Clohisey S
    235. Coakley G
    236. Coburn Z
    237. Coetzee S
    238. Cole J
    239. Coleman C
    240. Conneh F
    241. Connell D
    242. Connolly B
    243. Connor L
    244. Cook A
    245. Cooper B
    246. Cooper J
    247. Cooper S
    248. Copeland D
    249. Cosier T
    250. Coulding M
    251. Coupland C
    252. Cox E
    253. Craig T
    254. Crisp P
    255. Cristiano D
    256. Crooks MG
    257. Cross A
    258. Cruz I
    259. Cullinan P
    260. Cuthbertson D
    261. Daines L
    262. Dalton M
    263. Daly P
    264. Daniels A
    265. Dark P
    266. Dasgin J
    267. David A
    268. David C
    269. Davies E
    270. Davies F
    271. Davies G
    272. Davies GA
    273. Davies K
    274. Dawson J
    275. Daynes E
    276. Deakin B
    277. Deans A
    278. Deas C
    279. Deery J
    280. Defres S
    281. Dell A
    282. Dempsey K
    283. Denneny E
    284. Dennis J
    285. Dewar A
    286. Dharmagunawardena R
    287. Dickens C
    288. Dipper A
    289. Diver S
    290. Diwanji SN
    291. Dixon M
    292. Djukanovic R
    293. Dobson H
    294. Dobson SL
    295. Donaldson A
    296. Dong T
    297. Dormand N
    298. Dougherty A
    299. Dowling R
    300. Drain S
    301. Draxlbauer K
    302. Drury K
    303. Dulawan P
    304. Dunleavy A
    305. Dunn S
    306. Earley J
    307. Edwards S
    308. Edwardson C
    309. El-Taweel H
    310. Elliott A
    311. Elliott K
    312. Ellis Y
    313. Elmer A
    314. Evans D
    315. Evans H
    316. Evans J
    317. Evans R
    318. Evans RI
    319. Evans T
    320. Evenden C
    321. Evison L
    322. Fabbri L
    323. Fairbairn S
    324. Fairman A
    325. Fallon K
    326. Faluyi D
    327. Favager C
    328. Fayzan T
    329. Featherstone J
    330. Felton T
    331. Finch J
    332. Finney S
    333. Finnigan J
    334. Finnigan L
    335. Fisher H
    336. Fletcher S
    337. Flockton R
    338. Flynn M
    339. Foot H
    340. Foote D
    341. Ford A
    342. Forton D
    343. Fraile E
    344. Francis C
    345. Francis R
    346. Francis S
    347. Frankel A
    348. Fraser E
    349. Free R
    350. French N
    351. Fu X
    352. Furniss J
    353. Garner L
    354. Gautam N
    355. George J
    356. George P
    357. Gibbons M
    358. Gill M
    359. Gilmour L
    360. Gleeson F
    361. Glossop J
    362. Glover S
    363. Goodman N
    364. Goodwin C
    365. Gooptu B
    366. Gordon H
    367. Gorsuch T
    368. Greatorex M
    369. Greenhaff PL
    370. Greenhalgh A
    371. Greenwood J
    372. Gregory H
    373. Gregory R
    374. Grieve D
    375. Griffin D
    376. Griffiths L
    377. Guerdette A-M
    378. Guillen Guio B
    379. Gummadi M
    380. Gupta A
    381. Gurram S
    382. Guthrie E
    383. Guy Z
    384. H Henson H
    385. Hadley K
    386. Haggar A
    387. Hainey K
    388. Hairsine B
    389. Haldar P
    390. Hall I
    391. Hall L
    392. Halling-Brown M
    393. Hamil R
    394. Hancock A
    395. Hancock K
    396. Hanley NA
    397. Haq S
    398. Hardwick HE
    399. Hardy E
    400. Hardy T
    401. Hargadon B
    402. Harrington K
    403. Harris E
    404. Harrison P
    405. Harvey A
    406. Harvey M
    407. Harvie M
    408. Haslam L
    409. Havinden-Williams M
    410. Hawkes J
    411. Hawkings N
    412. Haworth J
    413. Hayday A
    414. Haynes M
    415. Hazeldine J
    416. Hazelton T
    417. Heeley C
    418. Heeney JL
    419. Heightman M
    420. Henderson M
    421. Hesselden L
    422. Hewitt M
    423. Highett V
    424. Hillman T
    425. Hiwot T
    426. Hoare A
    427. Hoare M
    428. Hockridge J
    429. Hogarth P
    430. Holbourn A
    431. Holden S
    432. Holdsworth L
    433. Holgate D
    434. Holland M
    435. Holloway L
    436. Holmes K
    437. Holmes M
    438. Holroyd-Hind B
    439. Holt L
    440. Hormis A
    441. Hosseini A
    442. Hotopf M
    443. Howard K
    444. Howell A
    445. Hufton E
    446. Hughes AD
    447. Hughes J
    448. Hughes R
    449. Humphries A
    450. Huneke N
    451. Hurditch E
    452. Husain M
    453. Hussell T
    454. Hutchinson J
    455. Ibrahim W
    456. Ilyas F
    457. Ingham J
    458. Ingram L
    459. Ionita D
    460. Isaacs K
    461. Ismail K
    462. Jackson T
    463. James WY
    464. Jarman C
    465. Jarrold I
    466. Jarvis H
    467. Jastrub R
    468. Jayaraman B
    469. Jezzard P
    470. Jiwa K
    471. Johnson C
    472. Johnson S
    473. Johnston D
    474. Jolley CJ
    475. Jones D
    476. Jones G
    477. Jones H
    478. Jones H
    479. Jones I
    480. Jones L
    481. Jones S
    482. Jose S
    483. Kabir T
    484. Kaltsakas G
    485. Kamwa V
    486. Kanellakis N
    487. Kaprowska s
    488. Kausar Z
    489. Keenan N
    490. Kelly S
    491. Kemp G
    492. Kerslake H
    493. Key AL
    494. Khan F
    495. Khunti K
    496. Kilroy S
    497. King B
    498. King C
    499. Kingham L
    500. Kirk J
    501. Kitterick P
    502. Klenerman P
    503. Knibbs L
    504. Knight S
    505. Knighton A
    506. Kon O
    507. Kon S
    508. Kon SS
    509. Koprowska S
    510. Korszun A
    511. Koychev I
    512. Kurasz C
    513. Kurupati P
    514. Laing C
    515. Lamlum H
    516. Landers G
    517. Langenberg C
    518. Lasserson D
    519. Lavelle-Langham L
    520. Lawrie A
    521. Lawson C
    522. Lawson C
    523. Layton A
    524. Lea A
    525. Lee D
    526. Lee J-H
    527. Lee E
    528. Leitch K
    529. Lenagh R
    530. Lewis D
    531. Lewis J
    532. Lewis V
    533. Lewis-Burke N
    534. Li X
    535. Light T
    536. Lightstone L
    537. Lilaonitkul W
    538. Lim L
    539. Linford S
    540. Lingford-Hughes A
    541. Lipman M
    542. Liyanage K
    543. Lloyd A
    544. Logan S
    545. Lomas D
    546. Loosley R
    547. Lota H
    548. Lovegrove W
    549. Lucey A
    550. Lukaschuk E
    551. Lye A
    552. Lynch C
    553. MacDonald S
    554. MacGowan G
    555. Macharia I
    556. Mackie J
    557. Macliver L
    558. Madathil S
    559. Madzamba G
    560. Magee N
    561. Magtoto MM
    562. Mairs N
    563. Majeed N
    564. Major E
    565. Malein F
    566. Malim M
    567. Mallison G
    568. Mandal S
    569. Mangion K
    570. Manisty C
    571. Manley R
    572. March K
    573. Marciniak S
    574. Marino P
    575. Mariveles M
    576. Marouzet E
    577. Marsh S
    578. Marshall B
    579. Marshall M
    580. Martin J
    581. Martineau A
    582. Martinez LM
    583. Maskell N
    584. Matila D
    585. Matimba-Mupaya W
    586. Matthews L
    587. Mbuyisa A
    588. McAdoo S
    589. Weir McCall J
    590. McAllister-Williams H
    591. McArdle A
    592. McArdle P
    593. McAulay D
    594. McCormick J
    595. McCormick W
    596. McCourt P
    597. McGarvey L
    598. McGee C
    599. Mcgee K
    600. McGinness J
    601. McGlynn K
    602. McGovern A
    603. McGuinness H
    604. McInnes IB
    605. McIntosh J
    606. McIvor E
    607. McIvor K
    608. McLeavey L
    609. McMahon A
    610. McMahon MJ
    611. McMorrow L
    612. Mcnally T
    613. McNarry M
    614. McNeill J
    615. McQueen A
    616. McShane H
    617. Mears C
    618. Megson C
    619. Megson S
    620. Mehta P
    621. Meiring J
    622. Melling L
    623. Mencias M
    624. Menzies D
    625. Merida Morillas M
    626. Michael A
    627. Milligan L
    628. Miller C
    629. Mills C
    630. Mills NL
    631. Milner L
    632. Misra S
    633. Mitchell J
    634. Mohamed A
    635. Mohamed N
    636. Mohammed S
    637. Molyneaux PL
    638. Monteiro W
    639. Moriera S
    640. Morley A
    641. Morrison L
    642. Morriss R
    643. Morrow A
    644. Moss AJ
    645. Moss P
    646. Motohashi K
    647. Msimanga N
    648. Mukaetova-Ladinska E
    649. Munawar U
    650. Murira J
    651. Nanda U
    652. Nassa H
    653. Nasseri M
    654. Neal A
    655. Needham R
    656. Neill P
    657. Newell H
    658. Newman T
    659. Newton-Cox A
    660. Nicholson T
    661. Nicoll D
    662. Nolan CM
    663. Noonan MJ
    664. Norman C
    665. Novotny P
    666. Nunag J
    667. Nwafor L
    668. Nwanguma U
    669. Nyaboko J
    670. O’Donnell K
    671. O’Brien C
    672. O’Brien L
    673. O’Regan D
    674. Odell N
    675. Ogg G
    676. Olaosebikan O
    677. Oliver C
    678. Omar Z
    679. Orriss-Dib L
    680. Osborne L
    681. Osbourne R
    682. Ostermann M
    683. Overton C
    684. Owen J
    685. Oxton J
    686. Pack J
    687. Pacpaco E
    688. Paddick S
    689. Painter S
    690. Pakzad A
    691. Palmer S
    692. Papineni P
    693. Paques K
    694. Paradowski K
    695. Pareek M
    696. Parfrey H
    697. Pariante C
    698. Parker S
    699. Parkes M
    700. Parmar J
    701. Patale S
    702. Patel B
    703. Patel M
    704. Patel S
    705. Pattenadk D
    706. Pavlides M
    707. Payne S
    708. Pearce L
    709. Pearl JE
    710. Peckham D
    711. Pendlebury J
    712. Peng Y
    713. Pennington C
    714. Peralta I
    715. Perkins E
    716. Peterkin Z
    717. Peto T
    718. Petousi N
    719. Petrie J
    720. Phipps J
    721. Pimm J
    722. Piper Hanley K
    723. Pius R
    724. Plant H
    725. Plein S
    726. Plekhanova T
    727. Plowright M
    728. Polgar O
    729. Poll L
    730. Porter J
    731. Portukhay S
    732. Powell N
    733. Prabhu A
    734. Pratt J
    735. Price A
    736. Price C
    737. Price C
    738. Price D
    739. Price L
    740. Price L
    741. Prickett A
    742. Propescu J
    743. Pugmire S
    744. Quaid S
    745. Quigley J
    746. Qureshi H
    747. Qureshi IN
    748. Radhakrishnan K
    749. Ralser M
    750. Ramos A
    751. Ramos H
    752. Rangeley J
    753. Rangelov B
    754. Ratcliffe L
    755. Ravencroft P
    756. Reddington A
    757. Reddy R
    758. Redfearn H
    759. Redwood D
    760. Reed A
    761. Rees M
    762. Rees T
    763. Regan K
    764. Reynolds W
    765. Ribeiro C
    766. Richards A
    767. Richardson E
    768. Rivera-Ortega P
    769. Roberts K
    770. Robertson E
    771. Robinson E
    772. Robinson L
    773. Roche L
    774. Roddis C
    775. Rodger J
    776. Ross A
    777. Ross G
    778. Rossdale J
    779. Rostron A
    780. Rowe A
    781. Rowland A
    782. Rowland J
    783. Roy K
    784. Roy M
    785. Rudan I
    786. Russell R
    787. Russell E
    788. Saalmink G
    789. Sabit R
    790. Sage EK
    791. Samakomva T
    792. Samani N
    793. Sampson C
    794. Samuel K
    795. Samuel R
    796. Sanderson A
    797. Sapey E
    798. Saralaya D
    799. Sargant J
    800. Sarginson C
    801. Sass T
    802. Sattar N
    803. Saunders K
    804. Saunders P
    805. Saunders LC
    806. Savill H
    807. Saxon W
    808. Sayer A
    809. Schronce J
    810. Schwaeble W
    811. Scott K
    812. Selby N
    813. Sewell TA
    814. Shah K
    815. Shah P
    816. Shankar-Hari M
    817. Sharma M
    818. Sharpe C
    819. Sharpe M
    820. Shashaa S
    821. Shaw A
    822. Shaw K
    823. Shaw V
    824. Shelton S
    825. Shenton L
    826. Shevket K
    827. Short J
    828. Siddique S
    829. Siddiqui S
    830. Sidebottom J
    831. Sigfrid L
    832. Simons G
    833. Simpson J
    834. Simpson N
    835. Singh C
    836. Singh S
    837. Sissons D
    838. Skeemer J
    839. Slack K
    840. Smith A
    841. Smith D
    842. Smith S
    843. Smith J
    844. Smith L
    845. Soares M
    846. Solano TS
    847. Solly R
    848. Solstice A
    849. Soulsby T
    850. Southern D
    851. Sowter D
    852. Spears M
    853. Spencer LG
    854. Speranza F
    855. Stadon L
    856. Stanel S
    857. Steele N
    858. Steiner M
    859. Stensel D
    860. Stephens G
    861. Stephenson L
    862. Stern M
    863. Stewart I
    864. Stimpson R
    865. Stockdale S
    866. Stockley J
    867. Stoker W
    868. Stone R
    869. Storrar W
    870. Storrie A
    871. Storton K
    872. Stringer E
    873. Strong-Sheldrake S
    874. Stroud N
    875. Subbe C
    876. Sudlow CL
    877. Suleiman Z
    878. Summers C
    879. Summersgill C
    880. Sutherland D
    881. Sykes DL
    882. Sykes R
    883. Talbot N
    884. Tan AL
    885. Tarusan L
    886. Tavoukjian V
    887. Taylor A
    888. Taylor C
    889. Taylor J
    890. Te A
    891. Tedd H
    892. Tee C
    893. Teixeira J
    894. Tench H
    895. Terry S
    896. Thackray-Nocera S
    897. Thaivalappil F
    898. Thamu B
    899. Thickett D
    900. Thomas C
    901. Thomas S
    902. Thomas AK
    903. Thomas-Woods T
    904. Thompson T
    905. Thompson AAR
    906. Thornton T
    907. Tilley J
    908. Tinker N
    909. Tiongson GF
    910. Tobin M
    911. Tomlinson J
    912. Tong C
    913. Touyz R
    914. Tripp KA
    915. Tunnicliffe E
    916. Turnbull A
    917. Turner E
    918. Turner S
    919. Turner V
    920. Turner K
    921. Turney S
    922. Turtle L
    923. Turton H
    924. Ugoji J
    925. Ugwuoke R
    926. Upthegrove R
    927. Valabhji J
    928. Ventura M
    929. Vere J
    930. Vickers C
    931. Vinson B
    932. Wade E
    933. Wade P
    934. Wainwright T
    935. Wajero LO
    936. Walder S
    937. Walker S
    938. Walker S
    939. Wall E
    940. Wallis T
    941. Walmsley S
    942. Walsh JA
    943. Walsh S
    944. Warburton L
    945. Ward TJC
    946. Warwick K
    947. Wassall H
    948. Waterson S
    949. Watson E
    950. Watson L
    951. Watson J
    952. Welch C
    953. Welch H
    954. Welsh B
    955. Wessely S
    956. West S
    957. Weston H
    958. Wheeler H
    959. White S
    960. Whitehead V
    961. Whitney J
    962. Whittaker S
    963. Whittam B
    964. Whitworth V
    965. Wight A
    966. Wild J
    967. Wilkins M
    968. Wilkinson D
    969. Williams N
    970. Williams N
    971. Williams J
    972. Williams-Howard SA
    973. Willicombe M
    974. Willis G
    975. Willoughby J
    976. Wilson A
    977. Wilson D
    978. Wilson I
    979. Window N
    980. Witham M
    981. Wolf-Roberts R
    982. Wood C
    983. Woodhead F
    984. Woods J
    985. Wormleighton J
    986. Worsley J
    987. Wraith D
    988. Wrey Brown C
    989. Wright C
    990. Wright L
    991. Wright S
    992. Wyles J
    993. Wynter I
    994. Xu M
    995. Yasmin N
    996. Yasmin S
    997. Yates T
    998. Yip KP
    999. Young B
    1000. Young S
    1001. Young A
    1002. Yousuf AJ
    1003. Zawia A
    1004. Zeidan L
    1005. Zhao B
    1006. Zongo O

    (2022) Clinical characteristics with inflammation profiling of long COVID and association with 1-year recovery following Hospitalisation in the UK: a prospective observational study

    The Lancet Respiratory Medicine 10:761–775.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(22)00127-8

    • Google Scholar
11. 1. Gatto I
    2. Biagioni E
    3. Coloretti I
    4. Farinelli C
    5. Avoni C
    6. Caciagli V
    7. Busani S
    8. Sarti M
    9. Pecorari M
    10. Gennari W
    11. Guaraldi G
    12. Franceschini E
    13. Meschiari M
    14. Mussini C
    15. Tonelli R
    16. Clini E
    17. Cossarizza A
    18. Girardis M
    19. Modena COVID-19 Working Group

    (2022) Cytomegalovirus blood reactivation in COVID-19 critically ill patients: risk factors and impact on mortality

    Intensive Care Medicine 48:706–713.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-022-06716-y

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
12. 1. Geginat J
    2. Lanzavecchia A
    3. Sallusto F

    (2003) Proliferation and differentiation potential of human Cd8+ memory T-cell Subsets in response to antigen or Homeostatic Cytokines

    Blood 101:4260–4266.

    https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2002-11-3577

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
13. 1. Gregorova M
    2. Morse D
    3. Brignoli T
    4. Steventon J
    5. Hamilton F
    6. Albur M
    7. Arnold D
    8. Thomas M
    9. Halliday A
    10. Baum H
    11. Rice C
    12. Avison MB
    13. Davidson AD
    14. Santopaolo M
    15. Oliver E
    16. Goenka A
    17. Finn A
    18. Wooldridge L
    19. Amulic B
    20. Boyton RJ
    21. Altmann DM
    22. Butler DK
    23. McMurray C
    24. Stockton J
    25. Nicholls S
    26. Cooper C
    27. Loman N
    28. Cox MJ
    29. Rivino L
    30. Massey RC

    (2020) Post-acute COVID-19 associated with evidence of bystander T-cell activation and a recurring antibiotic-resistant bacterial pneumonia

    eLife 9:e63430.

    https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.63430

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
14. 1. Halliday A
    2. Long AE
    3. Baum HE
    4. Thomas AC
    5. Shelley KL
    6. Oliver E
    7. Gupta K
    8. Francis O
    9. Williamson MK
    10. Di Bartolo N
    11. Randell MJ
    12. Ben-Khoud Y
    13. Kelland I
    14. Mortimer G
    15. Ball O
    16. Plumptre C
    17. Chandler K
    18. Obst U
    19. Secchi M
    20. Piemonti L
    21. Lampasona V
    22. Smith J
    23. Gregorova M
    24. Knezevic L
    25. Metz J
    26. Barr R
    27. Morales-Aza B
    28. Oliver J
    29. Collingwood L
    30. Hitchings B
    31. Ring S
    32. Wooldridge L
    33. Rivino L
    34. Timpson N
    35. McKernon J
    36. Muir P
    37. Hamilton F
    38. Arnold D
    39. Woolfson DN
    40. Goenka A
    41. Davidson AD
    42. Toye AM
    43. Berger I
    44. Bailey M
    45. Gillespie KM
    46. Williams AJK
    47. Finn A

    (2022) Development and evaluation of low-volume tests to detect and characterize antibodies to SARS-Cov-2

    Frontiers in Immunology 13:968317.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.968317

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
15. 1. Halpin SJ
    2. McIvor C
    3. Whyatt G
    4. Adams A
    5. Harvey O
    6. McLean L
    7. Walshaw C
    8. Kemp S
    9. Corrado J
    10. Singh R
    11. Collins T
    12. O’Connor RJ
    13. Sivan M

    (2021) Postdischarge symptoms and rehabilitation needs in survivors of COVID-19 infection: A cross-sectional evaluation

    Journal of Medical Virology 93:1013–1022.

    https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26368

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
16. Software

    1. Hamilton F

    (2022) Discover_Long_Covid, version swh:1:rev:69324be0ab2bd26bb61dccaf094ce68916392192

    Software Heritage.

    https://archive.softwareheritage.org/swh:1:dir:29839ef6ecf0c1d561d36ec26e89dcb29f12853a;origin=https://github.com/gushamilton/discover_long_covid;visit=swh:1:snp:9cd428d5fe59dfaf09a9291137e2ebc59ae048b1;anchor=swh:1:rev:69324be0ab2bd26bb61dccaf094ce68916392192
17. 1. Hickie I
    2. Davenport T
    3. Wakefield D
    4. Vollmer-Conna U
    5. Cameron B
    6. Vernon SD
    7. Reeves WC
    8. Lloyd A
    9. Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group

    (2006) Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study

    BMJ 333:575.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
18. 1. Kuri-Cervantes L
    2. Pampena MB
    3. Meng W
    4. Rosenfeld AM
    5. Ittner CAG
    6. Weisman AR
    7. Agyekum RS
    8. Mathew D
    9. Baxter AE
    10. Vella LA
    11. Kuthuru O
    12. Apostolidis SA
    13. Bershaw L
    14. Dougherty J
    15. Greenplate AR
    16. Pattekar A
    17. Kim J
    18. Han N
    19. Gouma S
    20. Weirick ME
    21. Arevalo CP
    22. Bolton MJ
    23. Goodwin EC
    24. Anderson EM
    25. Hensley SE
    26. Jones TK
    27. Mangalmurti NS
    28. Luning Prak ET
    29. Wherry EJ
    30. Meyer NJ
    31. Betts MR

    (2020) Comprehensive mapping of immune perturbations associated with severe COVID-19

    Science Immunology 5:eabd7114.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.abd7114

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
19. 1. Liu J
    2. Li S
    3. Liu J
    4. Liang B
    5. Wang X
    6. Wang H
    7. Li W
    8. Tong Q
    9. Yi J
    10. Zhao L
    11. Xiong L
    12. Guo C
    13. Tian J
    14. Luo J
    15. Yao J
    16. Pang R
    17. Shen H
    18. Peng C
    19. Liu T
    20. Zhang Q
    21. Wu J
    22. Xu L
    23. Lu S
    24. Wang B
    25. Weng Z
    26. Han C
    27. Zhu H
    28. Zhou R
    29. Zhou H
    30. Chen X
    31. Ye P
    32. Zhu B
    33. Wang L
    34. Zhou W
    35. He S
    36. He Y
    37. Jie S
    38. Wei P
    39. Zhang J
    40. Lu Y
    41. Wang W
    42. Zhang L
    43. Li L
    44. Zhou F
    45. Wang J
    46. Dittmer U
    47. Lu M
    48. Hu Y
    49. Yang D
    50. Zheng X

    (2020) Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-Cov-2 infected patients

    EBioMedicine 55:102763.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102763

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
20. 1. Lucas C
    2. Wong P
    3. Klein J
    4. Castro TBR
    5. Silva J
    6. Sundaram M
    7. Ellingson MK
    8. Mao T
    9. Oh JE
    10. Israelow B
    11. Takahashi T
    12. Tokuyama M
    13. Lu P
    14. Venkataraman A
    15. Park A
    16. Mohanty S
    17. Wang H
    18. Wyllie AL
    19. Vogels CBF
    20. Earnest R
    21. Lapidus S
    22. Ott IM
    23. Moore AJ
    24. Muenker MC
    25. Fournier JB
    26. Campbell M
    27. Odio CD
    28. Casanovas-Massana A
    29. Yale IMPACT Team
    30. Herbst R
    31. Shaw AC
    32. Medzhitov R
    33. Schulz WL
    34. Grubaugh ND
    35. Dela Cruz C
    36. Farhadian S
    37. Ko AI
    38. Omer SB
    39. Iwasaki A

    (2020) Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological Misfiring in severe COVID-19

    Nature 584:463–469.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2588-y

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
21. 1. Lucas C
    2. Klein J
    3. Sundaram ME
    4. Liu F
    5. Wong P
    6. Silva J
    7. Mao T
    8. Oh JE
    9. Mohanty S
    10. Huang J
    11. Tokuyama M
    12. Lu P
    13. Venkataraman A
    14. Park A
    15. Israelow B
    16. Vogels CBF
    17. Muenker MC
    18. Chang C-H
    19. Casanovas-Massana A
    20. Moore AJ
    21. Zell J
    22. Fournier JB
    23. Yale IMPACT Research Team
    24. Obaid A
    25. Robertson AJ
    26. Lu-Culligan A
    27. Zhao A
    28. Nelson A
    29. Brito A
    30. Nunez A
    31. Martin A
    32. Watkins AE
    33. Geng B
    34. Chun CJ
    35. Kalinich CC
    36. Harden CA
    37. Todeasa C
    38. Jensen C
    39. Dorgay CE
    40. Kim D
    41. McDonald D
    42. Shepard D
    43. Courchaine E
    44. White EB
    45. Song E
    46. Silva E
    47. Kudo E
    48. DeIuliis G
    49. Rahming H
    50. Park H-J
    51. Matos I
    52. Ott I
    53. Nouws J
    54. Valdez J
    55. Fauver J
    56. Lim J
    57. Rose K-A
    58. Anastasio K
    59. Brower K
    60. Glick L
    61. Sharma L
    62. Sewanan L
    63. Knaggs L
    64. Minasyan M
    65. Batsu M
    66. Petrone M
    67. Kuang M
    68. Nakahata M
    69. Linehan M
    70. Askenase MH
    71. Simonov M
    72. Smolgovsky M
    73. Balkcom NC
    74. Sonnert N
    75. Naushad N
    76. Vijayakumar P
    77. Martinello R
    78. Datta R
    79. Handoko R
    80. Bermejo S
    81. Prophet S
    82. Bickerton S
    83. Velazquez S
    84. Alpert T
    85. Rice T
    86. Khoury-Hanold W
    87. Peng X
    88. Yang Y
    89. Cao Y
    90. Strong Y
    91. Lin Z
    92. Wyllie AL
    93. Campbell M
    94. Lee AI
    95. Chun HJ
    96. Grubaugh ND
    97. Schulz WL
    98. Farhadian S
    99. Dela Cruz C
    100. Ring AM
    101. Shaw AC
    102. Wisnewski AV
    103. Yildirim I
    104. Ko AI
    105. Omer SB
    106. Iwasaki A

    (2021) Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19

    Nature Medicine 27:1178–1186.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01355-0

    • Google Scholar
22. 1. Mann ER
    2. Menon M
    3. Knight SB
    4. Konkel JE
    5. Jagger C
    6. Shaw TN
    7. Krishnan S
    8. Rattray M
    9. Ustianowski A
    10. Bakerly ND
    11. Dark P
    12. Lord G
    13. Simpson A
    14. Felton T
    15. Ho L-P
    16. Feldmann M
    17. Grainger JR
    18. Hussell T
    19. NIHR Respiratory TRC
    20. CIRCO

    (2020) Longitudinal immune profiling reveals key myeloid signatures associated with COVID-19

    Science Immunology 5:eabd6197.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.abd6197

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
23. 1. Mardi A
    2. Meidaninikjeh S
    3. Nikfarjam S
    4. Majidi Zolbanin N
    5. Jafari R

    (2021) Interleukin-1 in COVID-19 infection: Immunopathogenesis and possible therapeutic perspective

    Viral Immunology 34:679–688.

    https://doi.org/10.1089/vim.2021.0071

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
24. 1. Mathew D
    2. Giles JR
    3. Baxter AE
    4. Oldridge DA
    5. Greenplate AR
    6. Wu JE
    7. Alanio C
    8. Kuri-Cervantes L
    9. Pampena MB
    10. D’Andrea K
    11. Manne S
    12. Chen Z
    13. Huang YJ
    14. Reilly JP
    15. Weisman AR
    16. Ittner CAG
    17. Kuthuru O
    18. Dougherty J
    19. Nzingha K
    20. Han N
    21. Kim J
    22. Pattekar A
    23. Goodwin EC
    24. Anderson EM
    25. Weirick ME
    26. Gouma S
    27. Arevalo CP
    28. Bolton MJ
    29. Chen F
    30. Lacey SF
    31. Ramage H
    32. Cherry S
    33. Hensley SE
    34. Apostolidis SA
    35. Huang AC
    36. Vella LA
    37. Betts MR
    38. Meyer NJ
    39. Wherry EJ
    40. Alam Z
    41. Addison MM
    42. Byrne KT
    43. Chandra A
    44. Descamps HC
    45. Kaminskiy Y
    46. Hamilton JT
    47. Noll JH
    48. Omran DK
    49. Perkey E
    50. Prager EM
    51. Pueschl D
    52. Shah JB
    53. Shilan JS
    54. Vanderbeck AN
    55. The UPenn COVID Processing Unit

    (2020) Deep immune profiling of COVID-19 patients reveals distinct Immunotypes with therapeutic implications

    Science 369:eabc8511.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc8511

    • Google Scholar
25. 1. Miller JD
    2. van der Most RG
    3. Akondy RS
    4. Glidewell JT
    5. Albott S
    6. Masopust D
    7. Murali-Krishna K
    8. Mahar PL
    9. Edupuganti S
    10. Lalor S
    11. Germon S
    12. Del Rio C
    13. Mulligan MJ
    14. Staprans SI
    15. Altman JD
    16. Feinberg MB
    17. Ahmed R

    (2008) Human Effector and memory Cd8+ T cell responses to smallpox and yellow fever vaccines

    Immunity 28:710–722.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2008.02.020

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
26. 1. Nalbandian A
    2. Sehgal K
    3. Gupta A
    4. Madhavan MV
    5. McGroder C
    6. Stevens JS
    7. Cook JR
    8. Nordvig AS
    9. Shalev D
    10. Sehrawat TS
    11. Ahluwalia N
    12. Bikdeli B
    13. Dietz D
    14. Der-Nigoghossian C
    15. Liyanage-Don N
    16. Rosner GF
    17. Bernstein EJ
    18. Mohan S
    19. Beckley AA
    20. Seres DS
    21. Choueiri TK
    22. Uriel N
    23. Ausiello JC
    24. Accili D
    25. Freedberg DE
    26. Baldwin M
    27. Schwartz A
    28. Brodie D
    29. Garcia CK
    30. Elkind MSV
    31. Connors JM
    32. Bilezikian JP
    33. Landry DW
    34. Wan EY

    (2021) Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome

    Nature Medicine 27:601–615.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01283-z

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
27. 1. Notarte KI
    2. Catahay JA
    3. Velasco JV
    4. Pastrana A
    5. Ver AT
    6. Pangilinan FC
    7. Peligro PJ
    8. Casimiro M
    9. Guerrero JJ
    10. Gellaco MaML
    11. Lippi G
    12. Henry BM
    13. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C

    (2022) Impact of COVID-19 vaccination on the risk of developing long-COVID and on existing long-COVID symptoms: A systematic review

    EClinicalMedicine 53:101624.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101624

    • Google Scholar
28. 1. Peluso MJ
    2. Deitchman AN
    3. Torres L
    4. Iyer NS
    5. Munter SE
    6. Nixon CC
    7. Donatelli J
    8. Thanh C
    9. Takahashi S
    10. Hakim J
    11. Turcios K
    12. Janson O
    13. Hoh R
    14. Tai V
    15. Hernandez Y
    16. Fehrman EA
    17. Spinelli MA
    18. Gandhi M
    19. Trinh L
    20. Wrin T
    21. Petropoulos CJ
    22. Aweeka FT
    23. Rodriguez-Barraquer I
    24. Kelly JD
    25. Martin JN
    26. Deeks SG
    27. Greenhouse B
    28. Rutishauser RL
    29. Henrich TJ

    (2021) Long-term SARS-Cov-2-specific immune and inflammatory responses in individuals recovering from COVID-19 with and without post-acute symptoms

    Cell Reports 36:109518.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109518

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
29. 1. Phetsouphanh C
    2. Darley DR
    3. Wilson DB
    4. Howe A
    5. Munier CML
    6. Patel SK
    7. Juno JA
    8. Burrell LM
    9. Kent SJ
    10. Dore GJ
    11. Kelleher AD
    12. Matthews GV

    (2022) Immunological dysfunction persists for 8 months following initial mild-to-moderate SARS-Cov-2 infection

    Nature Immunology 23:210–216.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-01113-x

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
30. 1. Plüß M
    2. Mese K
    3. Kowallick JT
    4. Schuster A
    5. Tampe D
    6. Tampe B

    (2021) Case report: Cytomegalovirus reactivation and Pericarditis following Chadox1 nCoV-19 vaccination against SARS-Cov-2

    Frontiers in Immunology 12:784145.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.784145

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
31. 1. Proal AD
    2. VanElzakker MB

    (2021) Long COVID or post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC): an overview of biological factors that may contribute to persistent symptoms

    Frontiers in Microbiology 12:698169.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.698169

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
32. 1. Rivino L
    2. Messi M
    3. Jarrossay D
    4. Lanzavecchia A
    5. Sallusto F
    6. Geginat J

    (2004) Chemokine receptor expression identifies pre-T helper (Th)1, pre-Th2, and Nonpolarized cells among human Cd4+ central memory T cells

    The Journal of Experimental Medicine 200:725–735.

    https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20040774

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
33. 1. Rivino L
    2. Kumaran EAP
    3. Jovanovic V
    4. Nadua K
    5. Teo EW
    6. Pang SW
    7. Teo GH
    8. Gan VCH
    9. Lye DC
    10. Leo YS
    11. Hanson BJ
    12. Smith KGC
    13. Bertoletti A
    14. Kemeny DM
    15. MacAry PA

    (2013) Differential targeting of viral components by Cd4+ versus Cd8+ T lymphocytes in Dengue virus infection

    Journal of Virology 87:2693–2706.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02675-12

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
34. 1. Rivino L
    2. Kumaran EA
    3. Thein T-L
    4. Too CT
    5. Gan VCH
    6. Hanson BJ
    7. Wilder-Smith A
    8. Bertoletti A
    9. Gascoigne NRJ
    10. Lye DC
    11. Leo YS
    12. Akbar AN
    13. Kemeny DM
    14. MacAry PA

    (2015) Virus-specific T lymphocytes home to the skin during natural Dengue infection

    Science Translational Medicine 7:278ra35.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa0526

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
35. 1. Ruan Q
    2. Yang K
    3. Wang W
    4. Jiang L
    5. Song J

    (2020) Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China

    Intensive Care Medicine 46:846–848.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
36. 1. Ryan FJ
    2. Hope CM
    3. Masavuli MG
    4. Lynn MA
    5. Mekonnen ZA
    6. Yeow AEL
    7. Garcia-Valtanen P
    8. Al-Delfi Z
    9. Gummow J
    10. Ferguson C
    11. O’Connor S
    12. Reddi BAJ
    13. Hissaria P
    14. Shaw D
    15. Kok-Lim C
    16. Gleadle JM
    17. Beard MR
    18. Barry SC
    19. Grubor-Bauk B
    20. Lynn DJ

    (2022) Long-term perturbation of the peripheral immune system months after SARS-Cov-2 infection

    BMC Medicine 20:26.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-02228-6

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
37. 1. Sandalova E
    2. Laccabue D
    3. Boni C
    4. Tan AT
    5. Fink K
    6. Ooi EE
    7. Chua R
    8. Shafaeddin Schreve B
    9. Ferrari C
    10. Bertoletti A

    (2010) Contribution of Herpesvirus specific Cd8 T cells to anti-viral T cell response in humans

    PLOS Pathogens 6:e1001051.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1001051

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
38. 1. Schulte-Schrepping J
    2. Reusch N
    3. Paclik D
    4. Baßler K
    5. Schlickeiser S
    6. Zhang B
    7. Krämer B
    8. Krammer T
    9. Brumhard S
    10. Bonaguro L
    11. De Domenico E
    12. Wendisch D
    13. Grasshoff M
    14. Kapellos TS
    15. Beckstette M
    16. Pecht T
    17. Saglam A
    18. Dietrich O
    19. Mei HE
    20. Schulz AR
    21. Conrad C
    22. Kunkel D
    23. Vafadarnejad E
    24. Xu C-J
    25. Horne A
    26. Herbert M
    27. Drews A
    28. Thibeault C
    29. Pfeiffer M
    30. Hippenstiel S
    31. Hocke A
    32. Müller-Redetzky H
    33. Heim K-M
    34. Machleidt F
    35. Uhrig A
    36. Bosquillon de Jarcy L
    37. Jürgens L
    38. Stegemann M
    39. Glösenkamp CR
    40. Volk H-D
    41. Goffinet C
    42. Landthaler M
    43. Wyler E
    44. Georg P
    45. Schneider M
    46. Dang-Heine C
    47. Neuwinger N
    48. Kappert K
    49. Tauber R
    50. Corman V
    51. Raabe J
    52. Kaiser KM
    53. Vinh MT
    54. Rieke G
    55. Meisel C
    56. Ulas T
    57. Becker M
    58. Geffers R
    59. Witzenrath M
    60. Drosten C
    61. Suttorp N
    62. von Kalle C
    63. Kurth F
    64. Händler K
    65. Schultze JL
    66. Aschenbrenner AC
    67. Li Y
    68. Nattermann J
    69. Sawitzki B
    70. Saliba A-E
    71. Sander LE
    72. Deutsche COVID-19 OMICS Initiative (DeCOI)

    (2020) Severe COVID-19 is marked by a Dysregulated myeloid cell compartment

    Cell 182:1419–1440.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.001

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
39. 1. Schultheiß C
    2. Willscher E
    3. Paschold L
    4. Gottschick C
    5. Klee B
    6. Henkes S-S
    7. Bosurgi L
    8. Dutzmann J
    9. Sedding D
    10. Frese T
    11. Girndt M
    12. Höll JI
    13. Gekle M
    14. Mikolajczyk R
    15. Binder M

    (2022) The IL-1Β, IL-6, and TNF cytokine Triad is associated with post-acute sequelae of COVID-19

    Cell Reports. Medicine 3:100663.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100663

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
40. 1. Shuwa HA
    2. Shaw TN
    3. Knight SB
    4. Wemyss K
    5. McClure FA
    6. Pearmain L
    7. Prise I
    8. Jagger C
    9. Morgan DJ
    10. Khan S
    11. Brand O
    12. Mann ER
    13. Ustianowski A
    14. Bakerly ND
    15. Dark P
    16. Brightling CE
    17. Brij S
    18. Felton T
    19. Simpson A
    20. Grainger JR
    21. Hussell T
    22. Konkel JE
    23. Menon M
    24. CIRCO

    (2021) Alterations in T and B cell function persist in Convalescent COVID-19 patients

    Med 2:720–735.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medj.2021.03.013

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
41. 1. Sneller MC
    2. Marques AR
    3. Liang CJ
    4. Chung JY

    (2022) A longitudinal study of COVID-19 sequelae and immunity

    Annals of Internal Medicine 175:W153.

    https://doi.org/10.7326/L22-0331

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
42. 1. Swadling L
    2. Diniz MO
    3. Schmidt NM
    4. Amin OE
    5. Chandran A
    6. Shaw E
    7. Pade C
    8. Gibbons JM
    9. Le Bert N
    10. Tan AT
    11. Jeffery-Smith A
    12. Tan CCS
    13. Tham CYL
    14. Kucykowicz S
    15. Aidoo-Micah G
    16. Rosenheim J
    17. Davies J
    18. Johnson M
    19. Jensen MP
    20. Joy G
    21. McCoy LE
    22. Valdes AM
    23. Chain BM
    24. Goldblatt D
    25. Altmann DM
    26. Boyton RJ
    27. Manisty C
    28. Treibel TA
    29. Moon JC
    30. van Dorp L
    31. Balloux F
    32. McKnight Á
    33. Noursadeghi M
    34. Bertoletti A
    35. Maini MK
    36. COVIDsortium Investigators

    (2022) Pre-existing polymerase-specific T cells expand in abortive Seronegative SARS-Cov-2

    Nature 601:110–117.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04186-8

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
43. 1. Taeschler P
    2. Adamo S
    3. Deng Y
    4. Cervia C
    5. Zurbuchen Y
    6. Chevrier S
    7. Raeber ME
    8. Hasler S
    9. Bächli E
    10. Rudiger A
    11. Stüssi-Helbling M
    12. Huber LC
    13. Bodenmiller B
    14. Boyman O
    15. Nilsson J

    (2022) T-cell recovery and evidence of persistent immune activation 12 months after severe COVID-19

    Allergy 77:2468–2481.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/all.15372

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
44. 1. Tan AT
    2. Linster M
    3. Tan CW
    4. Le Bert N
    5. Chia WN
    6. Kunasegaran K
    7. Zhuang Y
    8. Tham CYL
    9. Chia A
    10. Smith GJD
    11. Young B
    12. Kalimuddin S
    13. Low JGH
    14. Lye D
    15. Wang LF
    16. Bertoletti A

    (2021) Early induction of functional SARS-Cov-2-specific T cells Associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patients

    Cell Reports 34:108728.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108728

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
45. 1. Thompson EJ
    2. Williams DM
    3. Walker AJ
    4. Mitchell RE
    5. Niedzwiedz CL
    6. Yang TC
    7. Huggins CF
    8. Kwong ASF
    9. Silverwood RJ
    10. Di Gessa G
    11. Bowyer RCE
    12. Northstone K
    13. Hou B
    14. Green MJ
    15. Dodgeon B
    16. Doores KJ
    17. Duncan EL
    18. Williams FMK
    19. Steptoe A
    20. Porteous DJ
    21. McEachan RRC
    22. Tomlinson L
    23. Goldacre B
    24. Patalay P
    25. Ploubidis GB
    26. Katikireddi SV
    27. Tilling K
    28. Rentsch CT
    29. Timpson NJ
    30. Chaturvedi N
    31. Steves CJ
    32. OpenSAFELY Collaborative

    (2022) Long COVID burden and risk factors in 10 UK longitudinal studies and electronic health records

    Nature Communications 13:3528.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30836-0

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
46. 1. Wang Z
    2. Zhu L
    3. Nguyen THO
    4. Wan Y
    5. Sant S
    6. Quiñones-Parra SM
    7. Crawford JC
    8. Eltahla AA
    9. Rizzetto S
    10. Bull RA
    11. Qiu C
    12. Koutsakos M
    13. Clemens EB
    14. Loh L
    15. Chen T
    16. Liu L
    17. Cao P
    18. Ren Y
    19. Kedzierski L
    20. Kotsimbos T
    21. McCaw JM
    22. La Gruta NL
    23. Turner SJ
    24. Cheng AC
    25. Luciani F
    26. Zhang X
    27. Doherty PC
    28. Thomas PG
    29. Xu J
    30. Kedzierska K

    (2018) Clonally diverse Cd38+HLA-DR+Cd8+ T cells persist during fatal H7N9 disease

    Nature Communications 9:824.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03243-7

    • Google Scholar
47. 1. Ware JE
    2. Kosinski M

    (2001) Interpreting SF-36 summary health measures: a response

    Quality of Life Research 10:405–413.

    https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012588218728

    • Google Scholar
48. 1. Wu F
    2. Zhao S
    3. Yu B
    4. Chen Y-M
    5. Wang W
    6. Song Z-G
    7. Hu Y
    8. Tao Z-W
    9. Tian J-H
    10. Pei Y-Y
    11. Yuan M-L
    12. Zhang Y-L
    13. Dai F-H
    14. Liu Y
    15. Wang Q-M
    16. Zheng J-J
    17. Xu L
    18. Holmes EC
    19. Zhang Y-Z

    (2020) A new Coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China

    Nature 579:265–269.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3

    • Google Scholar
49. 1. Zhao Y
    2. Qin L
    3. Zhang P
    4. Li K
    5. Liang L
    6. Sun J
    7. Xu B
    8. Dai Y
    9. Li X
    10. Zhang C
    11. Peng Y
    12. Feng Y
    13. Li A
    14. Hu Z
    15. Xiang H
    16. Ogg G
    17. Ho LP
    18. McMichael A
    19. Jin R
    20. Knight JC
    21. Dong T
    22. Zhang Y

    (2020) Longitudinal COVID-19 profiling Associates IL-1Ra and IL-10 with disease severity and RANTES with mild disease

    JCI Insight 5:e139834.

    https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.139834

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
50. 1. Zollner A
    2. Koch R
    3. Jukic A
    4. Pfister A
    5. Meyer M
    6. Rössler A
    7. Kimpel J
    8. Adolph TE
    9. Tilg H

    (2022) Postacute COVID-19 is characterized by gut viral antigen persistence in inflammatory bowel diseases

    Gastroenterology 163:495–506.

    https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2022.04.037

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar

Author details

1. Marianna Santopaolo

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - review and editing

   Contributed equally with

   Michaela Gregorova

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0009-0008-7593-287X

2. Michaela Gregorova

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - review and editing

   Contributed equally with

   Marianna Santopaolo

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-1605-0558

3. Fergus Hamilton

   Academic Respiratory Unit, North Bristol NHS Trust, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

4. David Arnold

   Academic Respiratory Unit, North Bristol NHS Trust, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Funding acquisition, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

5. Anna Long

   Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

6. Aurora Lacey

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

7. Elizabeth Oliver

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-1211-1942

8. Alice Halliday

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

9. Holly Baum

   School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-1311-6446

10. Kristy Hamilton

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

11. Rachel Milligan

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

12. Olivia Pearce

    Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

13. Lea Knezevic

    Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

14. Begonia Morales Aza

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

15. Alice Milne

    Academic Respiratory Unit, North Bristol NHS Trust, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

16. Emily Milodowski

    Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

17. Eben Jones

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Writing - review and editing

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

18. Rajeka Lazarus

    University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Resources, Writing - review and editing

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

19. Anu Goenka

    1. School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
    2. Department of Paediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Bristol Royal Hospital for Children, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing - review and editing

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

20. Adam Finn

    1. School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
    2. Department of Paediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Bristol Royal Hospital for Children, Bristol, United Kingdom
    3. School of Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Supervision, Funding acquisition

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

21. Nicholas Maskell

    Academic Respiratory Unit, North Bristol NHS Trust, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Resources, Supervision, Funding acquisition

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

22. Andrew D Davidson

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Formal analysis, Supervision, Investigation

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-1136-4008

23. Kathleen Gillespie

    Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Resources, Formal analysis, Supervision, Methodology

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

24. Linda Wooldridge

    Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing - review and editing

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-6213-347X

25. Laura Rivino

    School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing - original draft, Project administration

    For correspondence

    laura.rivino@bristol.ac.uk

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0001-6213-9794

• 4,897

  views

• 441

  downloads

• 18

  citations

Views, downloads and citations are aggregated across all versions of this paper published by eLife.